BEAM:-

A beam is a structural element that primarily resists loads applied laterally to the beam’s axis. Its mode of deflection is primarily by bending . The loads applied to the beam result in reaction forces at the beam’s support points. The total effect of all the forces acting on the beam is to produce shear forces and bending moments within the beam, that in turn induce internal stresses, strains and deflections of the beam. Beams are characterized by their manner of support, profile (shape of cross-section), equilibrium conditions, length, and their material.

Beams are traditionally descriptions of building or civil engineering structural elements, but any structures such as automotive automobile frames, aircraft components, machine frames, and other mechanical or structural systems contain beam structures that are designed to carry lateral loads are analyzed in a similar fashion.

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SUPPORTS

In engineering, beams are of several types

1. SIMPLY SUPPORTED – a beam supported on the ends which are free to rotate and have no moment resistance.
2. FIXED – a beam supported on both ends and restrained from rotation.
3. OVER HANGING – a simple beam extending beyond its support on one end.
4. DOUBLE OVERHANGING – a simple beam with both ends extending beyond its supports on both ends.
5. CONTINUOUS – a beam extending over more than two supports.
6. CANTILEVER – a projecting beam fixed only at one end.
7. TRUSSED – a beam strengthened by adding a cable or rod to form a  trusses.

SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM:-

A simply supported beam is the simplest structural element, as the name itself suggests, it is supported at its both ends, at one end it is pinned and the other is either pinned or rollers are used. It will undergo both bending and shearing and no translational motion is allowed, only sometimes when the roller end is used, of course, the bending and shearing will vary according to the type of load such as UDL(uniformly distributed load), UVL(uniformly varying load), concentrated load etc. Coming to the next part, if both ends are hinged then it will be a fixed beam which is another class of beams, for which every type of load is not applicable, and deflection is rather less, but of course, it can be regarded as a simply supported beam as it supported by two hinge.

FIXED BEAM:-

A fixed beam is one with ends restrained from rotation. In reality a beams ends are never completely fixed, as they are often modeled for simplicity. However, they can easily be restrained enough relative to the stiffness of the beam and column to be considered fixed.

DOUBLE OVERHANGING BEAM :-

Overhanging: A simple beam extending beyond its support on one end. Double

overhanging: A simple beam with both ends extending beyond its supports.

Continuous: A beam extending over more than two supports.

CONTINUOUS BEAM:- 

A continuous beam, i.e. a beam that has more than two supports, is statically indeterminate . The reactions in the supports of a continuous beam cannot be obtained with the equations of static equilibrium only. For the calculation of the reactions in the supports each section is considered as an independent beam. The action of the adjacent part is substituted by a moment in the support between the sections. The equation for determining these moments is known as the theorem of three moments.

A beam that has one fixed end and n roller supports is n-fold statically indeterminate. If both ends of the beam are fixed, then the degree of indeterminacy is equal to the number of supports. The moment in a roller support for a beam with a console is equal to the moment from the load on the console. We calculate the necessary geometrical stiffness of the beam with the equation of elastic stability  R = R=M/ECs. The stress in the beam should be less than the beam-specific and material limits, σ_max < σ_cr and σ_max < σ_y.

CANTILEVER BEAM:-

A cantilever is a rigid  structural elements , such as a beam or a plate, anchored at one end to a (usually vertical) support from which it protrudes; this connection could also be perpendicular to a flat, vertical surface such as a wall. Cantilevers can also be constructed with trusses or slabs . When subjected to a structural load the cantilever carries the load to the support where it is forced against by a  moment and Sheared stress

Cantilever construction allows overhanging structures without external bracing, in contrast to constructions supported at both ends with loads applied between the supports, such as a simply supported beam found in a post and lintel system.

TRUSSED BEAM:- 

A beam which is stiffened by a system of braces constituting a truss of which the beam is a chord is called trussed beam. It consists of steel sections (or wooden beams) and struts of steel rods. Trussed beams are used when there is great weight to be supported across wide space without supports from beneath.

REFERNCE TAKEN FROM WIKIPEDIA

FOOTING:-

Footing is one of the most important parts of a structure which transfers loads of a structure to the underlying soil. The selection of suitable type of footing generally depends on the following factors:

1. The depth of the soil at which safe bearing strata exists.
2. The type and condition of soil.
3. The type of the superstructure.

TYPES OF FOOTING:-

• Wall footing/Strip footing.
• Spread Footings
• Isolated footings.
• Stepped footings.
• Combined footings.
• Sloped footings.
• Mat or Raft foundation.
• Strapped footings
• Pile foundation.

1. WALL OR STRIP FOOTING:

It is a component of shallow foundation which distributes the weight of a load bearing wall across the area of the ground. It is also known as wall footing.

2. SPREAD FOOTING:

As the name suggests, a spread is given under the base of the foundation so that the load of the structure is distributed on wide area of the soil in such a way that the safe bearing capacity of the soil is not exceeded.

3. ISOLATED FOOTINGS:

It is square, circular or individually rectangular slab of uniform thickness, provided under each column.

4. STEPPED FOOTINGS:

The main purpose of using stepped footing is to keep the metal columns away from direct contact with soil to save them from corrosive effect. They are used to carry the load of metal columns and transmit this load to the below ground.

5. COMBINED FOOTINGS:

When two or more columns are supported by a footing it is called combined footing. This footing may be of rectangular or trapezoidal in plan. Combined footing is provided under following situations.

• When columns are close to each other and their individual footings overlap.
• Soil having low bearing capacity and requires more area under individual footing.
• The column end is situated near the property line and the footing can not be extended.

6. STRAP FOOTING:

In such footing, the outer and inner column is connected by a strap beam, does not transfer any load to the soil. The individual footing areas of the columns are so arranged that the C.G of the combined loads of the two columns pass through the C.G of the two footing areas. Once this criterion is achieved, the pressure distribution below each individual footing will be uniform.

7. MAT OR RAFT FOUNDATION:

This foundation covers the entire area under the structure. This foundation has only RCC slab covering the whole area or slab and beam together. Mat foundation is adopted when heavy structures are to be constructed on soft made-up ground or marshy sites with uncertain behavior. Mat foundation is also known as raft foundation.

8. SLOPED FOOTING:

The footings having sloping top or side faces are known as sloped footings. This type of footing is useful in the construction of formwork.

FALSE CEILING:-

Falce ceiling is the ceiling created under the main slab or the floor, using any material like Gypsum sheet,Plaster of paris (pop),Thermocol,wood ply or anything like that. A ceiling under the slab of the room to creat design and aesthetics or for the aucostic or thermal insulation purpose. Ceiling other then original or main ceiling (slab) is called falce ceiling.

ADVANTAGES OF FALSE CEILING:-

False ceiling is done underneath your real ceiling.

There is a gap between the real ceiling and false ceiling. The gap is kept for various reasons. The benefits of false ceilings are :-

1. It helps you reduce too high ceiling. Gives you a compact feeling.
2. It gives nice touch to the interiors. A variety of interior ceilings are now coming in the market to select from for beautifying your home or office.
3. False ceiling helps you hide electrical wiring and you can use concealed lights.
4. Centralized air-conditioning can be hided under the false ceiling.
5. For offices, all the ducting cables can be moved hidden behind the false ceiling.

And there are many more, some people use the spaces under ceiling for hiding wealth like cash, gold & jewellery, property papers and keep them safe from thief and tax official.

TYPES OF FALSE CEILINGS AND ITS APPLICATIONS:-

False ceiling is provided below the roof slab on suspended supports. The false celling is usually provided for temperature control (heat insulation for AC), to install lights, or to conceal electrical and other networking cables and ugly or too high ceiling.

alse ceiling is an example of modern construction and architecture in both residential and commercial applications.

COMPONENTS OR PARTS OF FALSE CEILING:

The following figure shows the various components of a false ceiling:

TYPES OF FALSE CEILING

False ceilings can be differentiated into many types based on their uses, material used and appearance and visibility.

The major classification based on materials used are listed briefly below,

1. Gypsum Ceiling
2. Plaster of Paris Ceiling
3. Fiber Ceiling
4. Wooden Ceiling
5. Glass Ceiling
6. Metal Ceiling
7. Synthetic Leather or Cloth Ceiling

GYPSUM FALSE CEILING

Gypsum false ceiling is a hydrated sulfate of calcium. This type of false ceiling are lightweight, sound insulated, fire resistance, soft and thermally insulated.

Gypsum false ceiling comes in the shape of square boards that are hung with the help of iron framework. The finishing work on these boards like paints, laminates, wallpapers and texture finish gives good look.

PLASTER OF PARIS CEILING

Plaster of Paris (POP) is the majorly used material in the construction of false ceiling. POP is obtained when gypsum is heated to a certain degree. It gives the both aesthetical and functional help.

Plaster of Paris false ceiling are attractive, almost no maintenance and has a long life span. They are very excellent insulators or heat and cold.

These types of false ceiling don’t only hide the ugly members of structure, ventilation ducts and conduits but also give smooth finish to the ceiling.

FIBER FALSE CEILING

Fiber false ceiling are in high demand for the construction of false ceiling due to low cost and east installation. The material used to manufacture fiber ceiling panels are man made by synthetic and natural minerals. As these are man-made they come in many shapes and sizes.

WOODEN FALSE CEILING

Wooden false ceiling is used due to its natural textures and pattern. Nowadays this types of false ceiling are used commonly as it gives a pleasant look to the eyes.

Wooden false ceiling being costly, is not used in malls and hospitals but can be installed in residential buildings. They can be given various finishes, or painted to get the right look.

Wooden false ceiling has many disadvantages, majorly which are:

• Prone to thermite attack.
• Prone to warping.
• The room should be thermally controlled.

GLASS FALSE CEILING

One of the type of false ceiling used in construction are of glass. It is a non-crystalline material with the property of brittle and transparent. But this can be altered to make it non brittle and non-transparent using some admixtures.

As glass is a good insulator of heat, it can be used for false ceiling. This type of false ceiling improves aesthetical appearance of the building.

METAL CEILING

As metal is a hard and durable material, it is used extensively in the false ceiling. When the metal surface is polished it gives a shiny surface which is a treat for eyes.

The metals used in this are galvanized iron and aluminum. The cost of this ceiling are low as they are easy to install and access. The hidden members of the structure are easily accessed as the panels are easily removable and reattached. The construction cost becomes less as the installation, fixing and maintained is low.

SYNTHETIC LEATHER OR CLOTH CEILING

The materials used in this type of ceilings are either leather or cloth. As both the used materials are man-made they can be given any form, shape and design which improves the aesthetic view of interior of the building.

As these collects dust and has low light transferring property it’s only used in temporary tents or other temporary buildings.

ADVANTAGES OF FALSE CEILING

• It provides a smooth homogeneous surface to the roof.
• It provides fire protection as it creates compartmentation.
• False ceiling helps in acoustical treatment.
• It conceals all the non-pleasing elements and hides it from the viewer’s eyes.
• It also hides the pipelines and the electrical cables running in the room. All the ducts of air-conditioning can be hidden under it.
• False ceiling materials are easy to install and cheap as compared to traditional roof systems.

DISADVANTAGES OF FALSE CEILING

• The most worrying aspect of having a false ceiling would be pests. They can get through into the space between and can start their own breeding which might lead to a lot of trouble.
• Also be careful while putting up decorations or hangings while you have a false ceiling in place. Make sure you know the strength and durability, do’s and don’ts with regard to your ceiling.
• Lastly, the false ceiling would reduce the height of the ceiling considerably and hence do not install false ceiling unless you have a decent ceiling height.

WPC BOARD (WOOD PLASTIC COMPOSITE):- 

In modern era because of advancement of the technology and research every day, new materials are coming up in the construction industry which is no exception. One such material in the building construction industry is Wood Plastic Composite (WPC). It is an Eco-friendly material which is emerging as an alternative to the natural wood as well as plywood. It is a composite material which constitutes of waste Wood fibers and thermoplastics. They are mixed together to form a base material possessing thick consistency. It is then further extruded and molded to different required shapes and sizes.

Various different colors and additives can also be added to create materials with better specifications. There is wide range of uses and applications of WPC boards in outdoor deck flooring, fences, door& window frames and outdoor landscape and so on.

In terms of percentage, it comprises of 70% of virgin polymer, 15% of wood powder(fiber) and remaining 15% of additives. It is available in size of 8 ft. X 4 ft.(2440 mm X 1220 mm) with the thickness of boards 5 mm (0.20 in.), 6 mm (0.24 in.), 7.5 mm (0.30 in.), 11 mm (0.43 in.), 12 mm (0.47 in.), 17 mm (0.67 in.) and 18 mm (0.71 in.).

CHARACTERISTICS OF WPC BOARD:-

There are various characteristics of WPC board which are listed below:

• The appearance and feel resembles to that of a natural wood. It requires less repair and maintenance as it does not distort/bend or chip off in small pieces like natural wood.
• It is highly resistant to moisture and hence a highly durable material.
• It also has resistance to termite and fungus.

• It does not corrode easily and does not decay or lose its constituents.
• As it is made up of recycled plastic and waste wood, hence it is sustainable and green material.
• There is a greater hold of nail , screws and fasteners when used with WPC in comparison with natural wood.
• Ten WPC Boards = Save One Tree

It is gaining popularity as it prevents the unnecessary cutting of trees and is made using waste materials in a very beneficial way to create improved building material . One tree is saved for every ten WPC boards.

Here are various advantages and disadvantages of WPC boards:

ADVANTAGES OF WPC BOARD:-

01. Quality:

• It comes with guaranteed quality which consists of modifiers, foaming agents, stabilizers and various elements that are mixed in specific and strict ratio. As there is a blend of high-quality materials, it eventually becomes a high-quality material.

02. Ease of Customization:

• As per requirements and needs, it can be moulded and shaped into different shapes and sizes. Due to this, it can be used for making of designer doors and windows which will give rich look and fine polishing. It is at present mostly used in doors, windows and home furnishings.

03. Sustainable Material:

• Paint is used or thermal transfer is done for modern and high-end surface treatment to make the WPC doors, flooring and profiles look prospering.  The surface treatment provides an exclusive and attractive look to the WPC boards.

04. Substitute:

It is a promising and cost-effective substitute for the plywood due to its various characteristics listed above.

DISADVANTAGES OF WPC BOARD:-

01. Chemical Properties:

• It contains a plastic polymer and wood fibres so the shortcomings of both the materials will be present in it.

02. Resistance:

• The resistance of WPC to the extreme temperature is low as compared to wood.

03. Cost:

• The cost of WPC material is higher as compared to the other materials used for the same purpose.

04. Appearance:

• It lacks the natural wooden texture due to which the feeling of natural wood is missing when furniture or doors of this material is prepared.

Uses and Applications of WPC Board

01. Outdoor Decks: 

• It is highly used in outdoor decks and patios. The manufacturers of WPC offer various decking options such as solid decking, hollow decking, mosaic decking and many more.

02. Fencing:

• As the material is secure and durable; they are widely used for the preparation of fences for gardens and other outdoor fencing purposes.

03. Paneling:

• This material is quite long lasting and as it is available in larger size, this allows the use of this material in indoor as well as outdoor panelling.

04. Interior Areas: 

• WPC boards are also used in the interior areas for making of various furniture items such as wardrobes, kitchen cabinates , interior partitions, Bathroom vanities and also in the ceiling of the room.

WPC board is now an emerging material which is modern and long-lasting, replacing the traditional construction materials due to its strength, modern designs and many more characteristics.

REFERENCE TAKEN FROM WWW.GHARPEDIA.COM

LAMINATED TIMBER:-

Glued laminated timber (glulam) is composed of several layers of dimensional timber glued together with moisture-resistant adhesives, creating a large, strong, structural member that can be used as vertical columns or horizontal beams. Glulam can also be produced in curved shapes, offering extensive design flexibility.

LAMINATED VENEER

Laminated Veneer lumbers(LVL) is produced by bonding thin wood veneers together in a large billet. The grain of all veneers in the LVL billet is parallel to the long direction. The resulting product features enhanced mechanical properties and dimensional stability that offer a broader range in product width, depth and length than conventional lumber. LVL is a member of the structural composite lumber (SCL) family of engineered wood products that are commonly used in the same structural applications as conventional sawn lumber and timber, including rafters, headers, beams, joists, rim boards, studs and columns.

CROSS LAMINATED

Cross Laminated Timber (CLT) is a versatile multi-layered panel made of lumber. Each layer of boards is placed cross-wise to adjacent layers for increased rigidity and strength. CLT can be used for long spans and all assemblies, e.g. floors, walls or roofs. CLT has the advantage of faster construction times as the panels are manufactured and finished off site and supplied ready to fit and screw together as a flat pack assembly project.

PARALLEL STRAND

Parallel strand lumber (PSL) consists of long veneer strands laid in parallel formation and bonded together with an adhesive to form the finished structural section. A strong, consistent material, it has a high load carrying ability and is resistant to seasoning stresses so it is well suited for use as beams and columns for post and beam construction, and for beams, headers, and lintels for light framing construction. PSL is a member of the structural composite lumber (SCL) family of engineered wood products.

LAMINATED STRAND

Laminated strand lumber (LSL) and oriented strand lumber (OSL) are manufactured from flaked wood strands that have a high length-to-thickness ratio. Combined with an adhesive, the strands are oriented and formed into a large mat or billet and pressed. LSL and OSL offer good fastener-holding strength and mechanical connector performance and are commonly used in a variety of applications, such as beams, headers, studs, rim boards, and millwork components. These products are members of the structural composite lumber (SCL) family of engineered wood products. LSL is manufactured from relatively short strands—typically about 1 foot long—compared to the 2 foot to 8 foot long strands used in PSL.

FINGER JOINT

The finger joint is made up of short pieces of wood combined to form longer lengths and is used in doorjambs, mouldings and studs. It is also produced in long lengths and wide dimensions for floors.

BEAMS:-

I- Joists and wood I beams are “I“-shaped structural members designed for use in floor and roof construction. An I-joist consists of top and bottom flanges of various widths united with webs of various depths. The flanges resist common bending stresses, and the web provides shear performance.I-joists are designed to carry heavy loads over long distances while using less lumber than a dimensional solid wood joist of a size necessary to do the same task [1]. As of 2005, approximately half of all wood light framed floors were framed using I-joists [2].

TRUSSES

Roof Trusses and floor trusses are structural frames relying on a triangular arrangement of webs and chords to transfer loads to reaction points. For a given load, long wood trusses built from smaller pieces of lumber require less raw material and make it easier for AC contractors, plumbers, and electricians to do their work, compared to the long 2x10s and 2x12s traditionally used as rafters  and floor joists.

TRANSPARENT WOOD COMPOSITES

Transparents wood composite are new materials, currently only made at the laboratory scale, that combine transparency and stiffness via a chemical process that replaces light-absorbing compounds, such as lignin , with a transparent polymer.

Advantages

Engineered wood products are used in a variety of ways, often in applications similar to solid wood products. Engineered wood products may be preferred over solid wood in some applications due to certain comparative advantages:

• Because engineered wood is man-made, it can be designed to meet application-specific performance requirements. Required shapes and dimension do not drive source tree requirements (length or width of the tree)
• Engineered wood products are versatile and available in a wide variety of thicknesses, sizes, grades, and exposure durability classifications, making the products ideal for use in unlimited construction, industrial and home project application.
• Engineered wood products are designed and manufactured to maximize the natural strength and stiffness characteristics of wood. The products are very stable and some offer greater structural strength than typical wood building materials.
• Glued laminated timber (glulam) has greater strength and stiffness than comparable dimensional lumber and, pound for pound, is stronger than steel.
• Some engineered wood products offer more design options without sacrificing structural requirements.
• Engineered wood panels are easy to work with using ordinary tools and basic skills. They can be cut, drilled, routed, jointed, glued, and fastened. Plywood can be bent to form curved surfaces without loss of strength. And large panel size speeds construction by reducing the number of pieces to be handled and installed.
• Engineered wood products make more efficient use of wood. They can be made from small pieces of wood, wood that has defects or underutilized species.
• Wooden trusses are competitive in many roof and floor applications, and their high strength-to-weight ratios permit long spans offering flexibility in floor layouts.
• Engineered wood is felt to offer structural advantages for home construction.

Disadvantage

• They require more primary energy for their manufacture than solid lumber.
• The adhesives used in some products may be toxic. A concern with some resins is the release of formaldehyde in the finished product, often seen with  urea formaldehyde bonded products.
• Cutting and otherwise working with some products can expose workers to toxic compounds.
• Some engineered wood products, such as those specified for interior use, may be weaker and more prone to humidity induced warping than equivalent solid woods. Most particle and fiber-based boards are not appropriate for outdoor use because they readily soak up water.

REFERENCE TAKEN FROM WIKIPEDIA

ORIENTED STRAND BOARD:-

Oriented standard board (OSB) is a wood structural panel manufactured from rectangular-shaped strands of wood that are oriented lengthwise and then arranged in layers, laid up into mats, and bonded together with moisture-resistant, heat-cured adhesives. The individual layers can be cross-oriented to provide strength and stiffness to the panel. However, most OSB panels are delivered with more strength in one direction. The wood strands in the outmost layer on each side of the board are normally aligned into the strongest direction of the board. Arrows on the product will often identify the strongest direction of the board (the height, or longest dimension, in most cases). Produced in huge, continuous mats, OSB is a solid panel product of consistent quality with no laps, gaps or voids.OSB is delivered in various dimensions, strengths and levels of water resistance.

PARTICLE BOARD:-

Particle Board is manufactured from wood chips, sawmill shavings, or even sawdust, and a synthetic resin or other suitable binder, which is pressed and extruded. Oriented strand board, also known as flakeboard, waferboard, or chipboard, is similar but uses machined wood flakes offering more strength. Particle board is cheaper, denser and more uniform than conventional wood and plywood and is substituted for them when cost is more important than strength and appearance. A major disadvantage of particleboard is that it is very prone to expansion and discoloration due to moisture, particularly when it is not covered with paint or another sealer.

FIBREBOARD:-

Medium density Fiberboard  and High-density fibreboard ( hardborad) is made by breaking down hardwood or softwood residuals into wood fibres, combining it with wax and a resin binder, and forming panels by applying high temperature and pressure.

REFERENCE TAKEN FROM WIKIPEDIA

CHEMICALLY DENSIFIED WOOD:-

More recent studies have combined chemical process with traditional mechanical hot press methods to increase density and thus mechanical properties of the wood. In these methods, chemical processes break down lignin and hemicellulose that is found naturally in wood. Following dissolution, the cellulose strands that remain are mechanically hot compressed. Compared to the three-fold increase in strength observed from hot pressing alone, chemically processed wood has been shown to yield an 11-fold improvement. This extra strength comes from hydrogen bonds  formed between the aligned cellulose nanofibers.

The densified wood possessed mechanical strength properties on par with steel used in building construction, opening the door for applications of densified wood in situations where regular strength wood would fail. Environmentally, wood requires significantly less carbon dioxide to produce than steel and acts as a source for carbon sequestration.

REFERENCE TAKEN FROM WIKIPEDIA

DENSIFIED WOOD:-

Densified wood is made by using a mechanical hot press to compress wood fibers and increase the density by a factor of three.This increase in density is expected to enhance the strength and stiffness of the wood by a proportional amount.Early studies confirmed this ends with a reported increase in mechanical strength by a factor of three.